Julius Caesar
Sources
Julius Caesar,
tragedy in five acts by William Shakespeare, produced in 1599–1600 and
published in the First Folio of 1623 from a transcript of a promptbook. In
1599, Julius Caesar was likely the first play to be performed at the newly
built Globe Theatre.
The main source of the play is Sir Thomas North’s
1579 translation (via a French version) of Plutarch’s Bioi parallēloi (Parallel
Lives). Julius Caesar is a dramatization of actual events. The settings for
Julius Caesar are Verona and Mantua in Italy. The play reflects the general
anxiety of Elizabethan England over succession of leadership. At the time of
its creation and first performance, Queen Elizabeth, a strong ruler, was
elderly and had refused to name a successor, leading to worries that a civil
war similar to that of Rome might break out after her death. That’s why, Shakespeare
turned to ancient Rome and their problems with leadership and violence to
explore current issues of concern.
In 61 BCE, Caesar
and Pompey, along with a third, Crassus, formed the First Triumvirate of Rome –
three men chosen to rule equally, and for a limited time; the Triumvirate was
solidified by inter-marrying amongst each other’s families. However, human nature being what it is, each
man soon began to act on behalf of his own personal ambitions for wealth, land
and power. In 58 BCE, Caesar began his
military campaigns, conquering, among others, Gaul (now Italy), and parts of
Britain and France, all the while maintaining his power, in absentia, in the
Roman political machine. In 53 BCE,
Crassus died in a failed military invasion, eliminating him as a potential
political threat to the remaining two leaders.
During Caesar’s absence from Rome for nearly 10 years, his daughter –
who had become Pompey’s wife – died, severing the tie between the remaining two
members of the original Triumvirate.
When Pompey was named the sole Consul of Rome, effectively cutting
Caesar out, and married the daughter of Caesar’s enemy, the Triumvirate
dissolved and the two men became known enemies. In 50 BCE, Pompey ordered
Caesar to return to Rome and disband his armies. When Caesar refused, believing (probably
rightfully so) that Pompey intended to capture and prosecute him, Pompey had
Caesar declared a traitor to Rome. As a
result, in 49 BCE, Caesar crossed the Rubicon River into Italy thrusting Rome
into Civil War. A year later, Caesar
defeated Pompey and it is here that Shakespeare’s story begins.
In 44 BC, Rome was
at the center of a large and expanding empire. The city was governed by
senators but their politics were plagued by in-fighting, and the real glory and
strength belonged to generals like Caesar and Antony. In addition, a new group,
the Tribunes, had entered the political field. After a hard-won battle, the
plebeians, the working class of Rome, had elected these men as their
representatives and protectors (as represented by Flavius and Marullus in Act
I). The return of the triumphant Caesar and his desire to centralize power went
against the grain of the decentralizing that was taking place. Such a setting
was filled with the makings of dramatic conflict. Shakespeare took this
potential for upheaval and used it to examine a leadership theme. Concentrating
on the responsibilities of the ruling class, he looked at what could happen if
that class no longer had a unified vision and had lost sight of what it meant
to be Roman.
Plot
JULIUS CAESAR is the
story of a man's personal dilemma over moral action, set against a backdrop of
strained political drama. The drama takes place in 44 BCE, after Caesar has
returned to Rome. Julius Caesar is a highly successful but ambitious political
leader of Rome and his goal is to become an unassailable dictator. He, an able
general and a conqueror returns to Rome amidst immense popularity after
defeating the sons of Pompey. (Pompey the Great, was a military and political
leader of the late Roman Republic) The people celebrate his victorious return
and Mark Antony offers him the Crown which he refuses. Fearing Caesar’s
ambition and feeling jealous of Caesar's growing power as well as afraid he may
one day become a dictator, Cassius instigates a conspiracy to murder Caesar. He
realizes that to gain legitimacy in the eyes of the Romans, he must win over
the noble Brutus to his side for Brutus is the most trusted and respected Roman
senator. He persuades the reluctant Brutus, the idealist, —Caesar’s trusted
friend—to join them, helps to plan and carry out Caesar's assassination which
he believes will rid Rome of a tyrant. Brutus, troubled and sleepless, finds
comfort in the companionship of his noble wife, Portia. Caesar is warned that
he must "beware the Ides of March”. Also Caesar’s wife, Calpurnia, alarmed
by prophetic dreams, warns her husband not to go to the Capitol the next day.
Then, as planned, Caesar is slain in the Senate on March 15, “the ides of March”
and prophecy comes true. Ironically, Caesar is murdered at the foot of Pompey's
statue. His friend Mark Antony, who has expediently shaken the bloodied hands
of the conspirators, gives a stirring funeral oration ("Friends, Romans,
and countrymen…") that inspires the crowd to turn against them. Brutus,
the noble Roman, whose decision to take part in the conspiracy for the sake of
freedom, plunges his country into civil war. Octavius, Caesar’s nephew, forms a
triumvirate with Antony and Lepidus; Brutus and Cassius are eventually defeated
at the Battle of Philippi, where they kill themselves to avoid further
dishonour.
Finally, it is
important to have a look at the end of this play and consider what kind of
resolution it actually brings. In fact, this approach helps analyze any of
Shakespeare's plays. Near the end of Julius Caesar, lessons appear to have been
learned and Brutus seems to have received his proper due, but audience must not
forget that the final speakers, Antony and Octavius, have not always been
truthful men and may not be in the future. The ambiguity of the ending of this
play is characteristic of Shakespeare's work. The more neatly things seem to be
resolved, the more likely it is that the action has just begun.
Julius Caesar
illustrates the transition in Shakespeare’s writing toward darker themes and
tragedy. It, too, is a history play in a sense, dealing with a non-Christian
civilization existing 16 centuries before Shakespeare wrote his plays. Roman
history opened up for Shakespeare a world in which divine purpose could not be
easily ascertained. The characters of Julius Caesar variously interpret the
great event of the assassination of Caesar as one in which the gods are angry
or disinterested or capricious or simply not there. Human history in Julius
Caesar seems to follow a pattern of rise and fall, in a way that is cyclical
rather than divinely purposeful. Caesar enjoys his days of triumph, until he is
cut down by the conspirators; Brutus and Cassius succeed to power, but not for
long. Brutus’s attempts to protect Roman republicanism and the freedom of the
city’s citizens to govern themselves through senatorial tradition end up in the
destruction of the very liberties he most cherished. He and Cassius meet their
destiny at the Battle of Philippi. They are truly tragic figures, especially
Brutus, in that their essential characters are their fate; Brutus is a good man
but also proud and stubborn, and these latter qualities ultimately bring about
his death. Shakespeare’s first major tragedy is Roman in spirit and Classical
in its notion of tragic character. It shows what Shakespeare had to learn from
Classical precedent as he set about looking for workable models in tragedy.
Summary
The Life and Death
of Julius Caesar is one of Shakespeare’s most well-known and oft-quoted plays,
a classic story of loyalty, politics, murder and intrigue with some of the
greatest oratory ever written. The action begins in February 44 BC. Julius
Caesar has just re-entered Rome in triumph after a victory in Spain over the
sons of his old enemy, Pompey the Great. A spontaneous celebration has
interrupted and been broken up by Flavius and Marullus, two political enemies
of Caesar. It soon becomes apparent from their words that powerful and secret
forces are working against Caesar. Caesar appears, attended by a train of
friends and supporters, and is warned by a soothsayer to "beware the ides
of March," (Ides means the fifteenth day of the month) but he ignores the
warning and leaves for the games and races marking the celebration of the feast
of Lupercal. After Caesar's departure, only two men remain behind — Marcus
Brutus, a close personal friend of Caesar, and Cassius, a long time political
foe of Caesar's. Both men are of aristocratic origin and see the end of their
ancient privilege in Caesar's political reforms and conquests. Envious of
Caesar's power and prestige, Cassius cleverly probes to discover where Brutus'
deepest sympathies lie. As a man of highest personal integrity, Brutus opposes
Caesar on principle, despite his friendship with him. Cassius cautiously
inquires about Brutus' feelings if a conspiracy were to unseat Caesar; he finds
Brutus not altogether against the notion; that is, Brutus shares "some
aim" with Cassius but does not wish "to be any further moved." They
then hear from Casca that Mark Antony has offered Caesar the crown of Rome
three times and that each time Caesar refused it with increasing reluctance, in
hopes that the crowd watching the exchange would beg him to accept the crown,
yet the crowd applauded Caesar for denying the crown, upsetting Caesar, due to
his wanting to accept the crown. The two men part, promising to meet again for
further discussions. On the eve of the ides of March, the conspirators meet and
reveal that they have forged letters of support from the Roman people to tempt
Brutus into joining.
In the next scene,
it is revealed that the conspiracy Cassius spoke of in veiled terms is already
a reality. He has gathered together a group of disgruntled and discredited
aristocrats who are only too willing to assassinate Caesar. Partly to gain the
support of the respectable element of Roman society, Cassius persuades Brutus
to head the conspiracy. Brutus reads the letters and, after much moral debate,
decides to join the conspiracy, thinking that Caesar should be killed to
prevent him from doing anything against the people of Rome if he were ever to
be crowned. Shortly afterward, plans are made at a secret meeting in Brutus'
orchard. The date is set: It will be on the day known as the ides of March, the
fifteenth day of the month. Caesar is to be murdered in the Senate chambers by
the concealed daggers and swords of the assembled conspirators. After the
meeting is ended, Brutus' wife, Portia, suspecting something and fearing for
her husband's safety, questions him. Touched by her love and devotion, Brutus
promises to reveal his secret to her later.
The next scene takes
place in Caesar's house. The time is the early morning; the date, the fateful ides
of March. The preceding night has been a strange one — wild, stormy, and full
of strange and unexplainable sights and happenings throughout the city of Rome.
Caesar's wife, Calphurnia, terrified by horrible nightmares, persuades Caesar
not to go to the Capitol, convinced that her dreams are portents of disaster. She
saw in the nightmare, a statue of Caesar bleed, and watched as smiling men
dipped their hands in the blood. He
agrees, but Decius reinterprets the omens in a favourable light. By prearrangement, Brutus and the other
conspirators arrive to accompany Caesar, hoping to fend off any possible
warnings until they have him totally in their power at the Senate. Unaware that
he is surrounded by assassins and shrugging off Calphurnia's exhortations,
Caesar goes with them. Despite the conspirators' best efforts, a warning is
pressed into Caesar's hand on the very steps of the Capitol, but he refuses to
read it. Wasting no further time, the conspirators move into action. Purposely
asking Caesar for a favor they know he will refuse, they move closer, as if
begging a favour, the conspirators approach him with a fake petition pleading
on behalf of Metellus Cimber's banished brother. As Caesar predictably rejects
the petition, and then, reaching for their hidden weapons, Casca and the others
suddenly stab him, before the shocked eyes of the senators and spectators;
Brutus is last. They stabbed him 23 times, crying “Liberty! Freedom! Tyranny is
dead!” At this point, Caesar utters the famous line "Et tu, Brute?"
("And you, Brutus?", i.e. "You too, Brutus?"), concluding
with "Then fall, Caesar!" realising that even his old friend Brutus has betrayed
him.
The conspirators
make clear that they committed this murder for the good of Rome, not for their
own purposes, and do not attempt to flee the scene. Hearing of Caesar's murder,
Mark Antony, Caesar's closest friend, begs permission to speak at Caesar's
funeral. Brutus grants this permission over the objections of Cassius and
delivers his own speech first, confident that his words will convince the
populace of the necessity for Caesar's death. After Brutus leaves, Antony
begins to speak and makes a subtle and eloquent speech over Caesar's corpse,
beginning with the much-quoted "Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your
ears!". The crowd has been swayed by Brutus' words, and it is an
unsympathetic crowd that Antony addresses. Using every oratorical device known,
however, Antony turns the audience into a howling mob, screaming for the blood
of Caesar's murderers. In this way, he deftly turns public opinion against the
assassins by manipulating the emotions of the common people, in contrast to the
rational tone of Brutus's speech, yet there is method in his rhetorical speech
and gestures: he reminds them of the good Caesar had done for Rome, his
sympathy with the poor, and his refusal of the crown at the Lupercal, thus
questioning Brutus's claim of Caesar's ambition; he shows Caesar's bloody,
lifeless body to the crowd to have them shed tears and gain sympathy for their
fallen hero; and he reads Caesar's will, in which every Roman citizen would
receive 75 drachmas. The angry people kill Cinna the poet, mistaking him for
Cinna the conspirator. Alarmed by the furor caused by Antony's speech, the
conspirators and their supporters are forced to flee from Rome and finally,
from Italy. At this point, Antony, together with Caesar's young grandnephew and
adopted son, Octavius, and a wealthy banker, Lepidus, gathers an army to pursue
and destroy Caesar's killers. These three men, known as triumvirs, have formed
a group called the Second Triumvirate to pursue the common goal of gaining
control of the Roman Empire.
Months pass, during
which the conspirators and their armies are pursued relentlessly into the far
reaches of Asia Minor. When finally they decide to stop at the town of Sardis,
Cassius and Brutus quarrel bitterly over finances. Their differences are
resolved, however, and plans are made to meet the forces of Antony, Octavius,
and Lepidus in one final battle. Against his own better judgment, Cassius
allows Brutus to overrule him: Instead of holding to their well-prepared
defensive positions, Brutus orders an attack on Antony's camp on the plains of
Philippi. Messala brings news of happenings at Rome, and reports that Portia
has killed herself by swallowing fire – fearing Octavius and Antony, who have
been putting to death those they label as traitors. Just before the battle,
Brutus is visited by the ghost of Caesar. "I shall see thee at
Philippi," the spirit warns him, but Brutus' courage is unshaken and he
goes on. The battle rages hotly. At first, the conspirators appear to have the
advantage, but in the confusion, Cassius is mistakenly convinced that all is
lost, and he orders his servant Pindarus to kill him. When Titinius returns
with Trebonius, we learn that the horsemen surrounding him had been his
friends, reporting of their army’s victory.
Finding the body and realizing Cassius has misconstrued everything,
Titinius kills himself with Cassius’ sword. Leaderless, his forces are quickly
defeated, and Brutus finds himself fighting a hopeless battle. Unable to face
the prospect of humiliation and shame as a captive (who would be chained to the
wheels of Antony's chariot and dragged through the streets of Rome), he too
takes his own life. As the play ends, Antony delivers a eulogy over Brutus' body,
calling him "the noblest Roman of them all”, because he was the only one
to act, as far as he was concerned, for the good of Rome. Caesar's murder has
been avenged, order has been restored, and, most important, the Roman Empire
has been preserved.
Character List
JULIUS CAESAR, Dictator of Rome: A successful military leader who wants the crown of
Rome. Unfortunately, he is not the man he used to be and is imperious, easily
flattered, and overly ambitious. Caesar fails to understand the many signs
indicating a plot against him. He is assassinated midway through the play by a
conspiracy led by Cassius and Brutus; later, his spirit appears to Brutus at
Sardis and also at Philippi and his name is invoked by both Cassius and Brutus
before they commit suicide in the final act.
Triumvirs after Caesar's death
Mark Antony (Marcus Antonius): He appears first as a confidant and a devoted follower
of Caesar, and he offers Caesar a crown during the feast of Lupercal. He has a
reputation for sensuous living, but he is also militarily accomplished,
politically shrewd, and skilled at oration. He is able to dupe Brutus into
allowing him to speak at Caesar's funeral and by his funeral oration to excite
the crowd to rebellion. He is one of the triumvirs, and he and Octavius defeat
Brutus and Cassius at Philippi.
Octavius Caesar:The adopted son and heir of Julius Caesar; he is one of the triumvirs
who rule following the death of Caesar. He and Antony lead the army that
defeats Cassius and Brutus at Philippi. He historically becomes the future
emperor of Rome.
Lepidus (M. Aemilius Lepidus): He joins Antony and Octavius to form the Second
Triumvirate to rule the Roman Empire following the assassination of Caesar. He
is weak, and Antony uses him essentially to run errands.
Conspirators against Caesar
Marcus Brutus (Brutus): A praetor; that is, a judicial magistrate of Rome. He
is widely admired for his noble nature. He joins the conspiracy because he
fears that Caesar will become a tyrant, but his idealism causes him to make
several poor judgements and impedes his ability to understand those who are
less scrupulous than he. Brutus defeats Octavius' forces in the first battle at
Philippi, but loses the second battle and commits suicide rather than be taken
prisoner.
Cassius: The
brother-in-law of Brutus and an acute judge of human nature, Cassius organizes the
conspiracy against Caesar and recruits Brutus by passionate argument and by
deviously placed, forged letters. He argues that Antony should be assassinated
along with Caesar; Antony should not speak at Caesar's funeral, and that he
(Cassius) and Brutus should not fight at Philippi, but he eventually defers to
Brutus in each instance. He is defeated by Antony at the first battle of
Philippi, and he commits suicide when he mistakenly believes that Brutus has
been defeated.
Casca: Witness
to Caesar's attempts to manipulate the people of Rome into offering him the
crown, he reports the failure to Brutus and Cassius. He joins the conspiracy
the night before the assassination and is the first conspirator to stab Caesar.
Decius Brutus: The
conspirator who persuades Caesar to attend the Senate on the day of the ides of
March by fabricating a flattering interpretation of Calphurnia's portentous
dream and by telling Caesar that the Senate intends to crown him king.
Cinna: The
conspirator who urges Cassius to bring "noble" Brutus into the
conspiracy; he assists by placing some of Cassius' forged letters where Brutus
will discover them.
Metellus Cimber: The conspirator who attracts Caesar's attention by requesting that his
brother's banishment be repealed, allowing the assassins to surround Caesar and
thereby giving Casca the opportunity to stab him from behind.
Trebonius:
The first of the conspirators to second Brutus' argument that Antony be spared,
Trebonius lures Antony out of the Senate House so that the other conspirators
can kill Caesar without having to fear Antony's intervention. Consequently, he
is the only conspirator who does not actually stab Caesar.
Caius Ligarius: No friend of Caesar's, he is inspired by Brutus' nobility to cast off
his illness and join the conspirators in the early morning of the ides of
March.
Tribunes
Flavius & Marullus : Tribunes who wish to protect the plebeians from
Caesar's tyranny; they break up a crowd of commoners waiting to witness
Caesar's triumph and are "put to silence" during the feast of
Lupercal for removing ornaments from Caesar's statues. They are removed from office
after derobing the statues of Caesar.
Roman Senate Senators
Cicero: A
senator and a famous orator of Rome. He is calm and philosophical when he meets
the excited Casca during the night of portentous tumult proceeding the day of
the assassination. He tells Casca that men construe omens the way they want to.
The triumvirs have him put to death.
Publius: An
elderly senator who arrives with the conspirators to escort Caesar to the
Capitol. He is stunned as he witnesses the assassination. Brutus sends him out
to tell the citizens that no one else will be harmed.
Popilius Lena: The
senator who wishes Cassius well in his "enterprise" as Caesar enters
the Senate House. This comment intensifies the dramatic tension in the moments
immediately prior to the assassination by causing Cassius and Brutus to briefly
fear that they have been betrayed.
Friends/Loyal to Brutus and Cassius
Volumnius: A
friend of Brutus and a soldier under his command at Philippi. He refuses to
hold a sword for Brutus to impale himself on.
Titinius: An
officer in the army commanded by Cassius and Brutus, he guards the tent at
Sardis during the argument between the two generals, and is a scout at Philippi
for Cassius. After Cassius commits suicide when he mistakenly believes Titinius
to have been taken prisoner by the enemy, Titinius kills himself in emulation
of Cassius.
Lucilius: The
officer who impersonates Brutus at the second battle of Philippi and is
captured by Antony's soldiers. Antony admires his loyalty to Brutus and thus he
protects him, hoping that Lucilius will choose to serve him as loyally as he
did Brutus.
Messala, messenger: A soldier serving under Brutus and Cassius, Messala gives information
concerning the advance of the triumvirs, and he reports Portia's death to
Brutus at Sardis. At Philippi, he hears Cassius confess that he believes in
omens. Later, he discovers Cassius' body.
Young Cato, Portia's brother: The son of Marcus Cato, the brother of Portia, the
brother-in-law of Brutus, and a soldier in the army commanded by Brutus and
Cassius. He dies during the second battle at Philippi while trying to inspire
the army by loudly proclaiming that he is the son of Marcus Cato and that he is
still fighting.
Servants to Brutus
Lucius: Brutus'
young attendant/servant; Brutus treats him with understanding, gentleness, and
tolerance.
Varrus & Claudius: Servants of Brutus, they spend the night in his tent
at Sardis. Neither of them observes the ghost of Caesar that appears to Brutus.
Clitus & Dardanius: Servants of Brutus, they refuse their master's request
at Philippi to kill him.
Strato : The
loyal servant who holds Brutus' sword so that he may commit suicide. Later, he
becomes a servant to Octavius.
Other
Calpurnia : The
wife of Julius Caesar; she urges him to stay at home on the day of the
assassination because of the unnatural events of the previous night as well her
prophetic dream in which Caesar's body is a fountain of blood.
Portia: The
wife of Brutus and the daughter of Marcus Cato. She argues that those familial
relationships make her strong enough to conceal Brutus' secrets, but on the morning
of the assassination, she is extremely agitated by the fear that she will
reveal what Brutus has told her. She proves her courage and strength by
stabbing her thigh with a dagger in order to force Brutus to tell her about the
plot to kill Caesar. She kills herself by swallowing hot coals from the fire
after Mark Antony and Octavius assume power in Rome.
Soothsayer : a
person supposed to be able to foresee the future. He warns Caesar during the celebration of the feast of Lupercal to
"beware the ides of March." He again warns Caesar as he enters the
Senate House.
Artemidorus – sophist from Knidos: He gives
Caesar a letter as the emperor enters the Capitol; in the letter, he lists the
conspirators by name and indicates that they intend to kill him, but Caesar
does not read it.
Cinna, the poet: On his way to attend Caesar's funeral, he is caught up in the riot
caused by Antony's funeral oration. The mob at first confuses him with Cinna
the conspirator, but even after they discover their error, they kill him anyway
"for his bad verses."
Pindarus, Cassius' bondman: At Philippi, he erroneously tells his master,
Cassius, that the scout Titinius has been captured by the enemy when the scout
has actually been greeted by the victorious forces of Brutus. Thinking that all
is lost, Cassius decides to die; he has Pindarus kill him with the same sword
that he used to help slay Caesar.
Cobbler
Carpenter
Poet (believed to be based on Marcus Favonios): a man who bursts into Brutus' tent and tries to warn
the army that Brutus and Cassius are angry with each other. Brutus orders him
to be taken away.
Flavius (non-speaking role)
Labeo (non-speaking role)
Caesar's servant
Antony's servant
Octavius' servant
Messenger
Other Senators, Citizens/ plebeians, Guards/soldiers, and attendants
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